The Termite Biological Control Continued Optimism Must Face its Ongoing Absence of Potential

Thomas Chouvenc

doi:10.13102/sociobiology.v73i2.12626

Authors

Thomas Chouvenc Ft. Lauderdale Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida, USA

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.13102/sociobiology.v73i2.12626

Keywords:

termite, publication bias, biological control, academia

Abstract

The following piece is unusual in all respects, as it does not follow the rigorous objective nature of a scientific review. As a fair warning, it is instead a rather personal opinion piece, so as to hopefully generate much-needed discussions within a relatively small field of research, yet a remarkably persistent one. Here, I have the opportunity to express a personal perspective and share my experiences about the general field of termite biological control research, and I truly hope that the obvious frustration permeating from these lines will be processed by the reader as a friendly -yet realistic- analysis of the termite biological control endeavor. From interacting with many colleagues in the past two decades while sharing my pessimistic views on the topic, I noticed two opposite reactions: the first one was in the lines of “we all already know, Thomas, why do you keep beating on that dead horse?,” while the second one was more like “You can’t say that Thomas, we just need more innovative research to make it work!” Such discrepancies in reactions reflect the two mutually exclusive realities that I personally have to interact with regularly, as a solicited reviewer and as a reader keeping up with the termite literature. Consequently, the writing process of the following opinion is inherently tainted with value judgment -some would say ‘incendiary’- but I find it most genuinely necessary so as to move the discussion into a non-candid realm, which remains at the core of the issue. Finally, while I may be wrong on some of these statements, as a putative research breakthrough may change the equation in a distant future, I may stay correct for a foreseeable one. Overall, I hope this piece will help any new venturer on this topic to be skeptical of the accumulated literature and to take the time to look at the larger picture before engaging in such research. In this opinion piece, 1) I review the termite biological control from an academic perspective, and 2) I then discuss what happened to this field of research since 2011 while highlighting the lingering problems surrounding termite biological control research.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

Afzal, M., Rasib, K.Z., & Qureshi, N.A. (2018). Fipronil enhanced natural occurrence of Fusarium solani (Hypocreales: Nectriaceae) on building infesting termite Heterotermes indicola Wasmann (Blattodea: Rhinotermitidae). Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology, 21:493–500. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aspen.2018.02.015

Ahmad, T., Nabi, S., & Humera, Q. (2018). Biotechnology: a tool in termite management. In: Khan, M. & Ahmad, W., Eds. Termites and Sustainable Management: Volume 2-Economic Losses and Management. Springer. p. 289–315. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-68726-1_13

Ahmad, F., Fouad, H., Liang, S.Y., Hu, Y., & Mo, J.C. (2019). Termites and Chinese agricultural system: applications and advances in integrated termite management and chemical control. Insectes Sociaux, 28: 2–20. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1744-7917.12726

Anta, J. (2025). Intellectual inflation: one way for scientific research to degenerate. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 109: 134-145. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsa.2025.01.003

Askary, H., Ghaffari, S., Asgari, M., & Karimi, J. (2021). Fungal entomopathogens of order Hypocreales. In: Karimi, J., & Madadi, H., Eds. Biological control of insect and mite pests in Iran: a review from fundamental and applied aspects Cham: Springer International Publishing. p. 439–480. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-63990-7_11

Awasthi, I., Gagneja, S., Aggarwal, M., Patra, A., Capalash, N., & Sharma, P. (2024). Biological Control Strategies for Termite Management. Preprints. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202403.1842.v1

Baïmey, H., Zadji, L., Afouda, L., Fanou, A., Kotchofa, R., & Decraemer, W. (2017). Searching for better methodologies for successful control of termites using entomopathogenic nematodes. In: Shah, M.M. & Mahamood, M. Eds. Nematology-Concepts, Diagnosis and Control. Intech, Croatia. p. 53–84. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.69861

Bharti, L., Yadav, K. & Chaubey, A.K., (2025). Integrated Management of Termites. In: Shields, V.D.C. & Owen, R.E. Eds. Advances in termite, bee, and wasp biology - ecology, physiology, and integrated management. Intechopen. Rijeka. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1002699

Bar-On, Y.M., Phillips, R., & Milo, R. (2018). The biomass distribution on Earth. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 115: 6506–6511. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1711842115

Bayen, S., Modak, D., Roy, S., Chakraborti, D., & Babu, A. (2024). Non-chemical management of termite pests: An overview. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science, 21:1-7.

Becker, G. (1969). Rearing of termites and testing methods used in the laboratory. In: Krishna, K & Weesner, F. M. Eds. Biology of termites. Vol. 1. Academic Press, New York. pp. 351–385. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-395529-6.50015-5

Boucias, D.G., Stokes, C., Storey, G., & Pendland, J.C. (1996). The effects of imidacloprid on the termite Reticulitermes flavipes and its interaction with the mycopathogen Beauveria bassiana. Pflanzenschutz-Nachrichten Bayer, 49:103–144.

Boulesteix, A.L. (2010). Over-optimism in bioinformatics research. Bioinformatics. 26: 437–439. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/btp648

Chellappan, M., & Ranjith, M.T. (2021). Termites. In: Omkar, Eds. Polyphagous pests of crops. Springer, Singapore. p. 51–104. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8075-8_2

Chen, T., Zeng, W.H., Yan, X., Li, Z.Q. (2023). Current status of research on the use of entomopathogenic nematodes as a biological control for termites. Chinese Journal of Applied Entomology, 59: 29-39.

Chen, W.W., Zeng, W.H., Shen, D.N., Feng, S.Y., & Li, Z.Q. (2023). Genome-wide identification of Coptotermes formosanus immune genes and their potential roles in termite control. Gene, 877: 147569. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gene.2023.147569

Chen, W., & Li, Z. (2025). miR-571 manipulating termite immune response to fungus and showing potential for green management of Coptotermes formosanus (Blattodea: Isoptera). Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology, 208: 106274. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pestbp.2024.106274

Chouvenc, T. (2011). Historical overview of termite biological control. In: Second Formosan subterranean termite symposium. New Orleans, LA.

Chouvenc, T. (2023). Using Coptotermes for laboratory experiments: field collection, laboratory rearing, and bioassay visualization. In: Su, N.Y., & Lee, C.Y. Eds. Biology and Management of the Formosan Subterranean Termite and Related Species. CABI. p. 365–393. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1079/9781800621596.0018

Chouvenc, T., & Su, N.Y. (2010). Apparent synergy among defense mechanisms in subterranean termites (Rhinotermitidae) against epizootic events: Limits and potential for biological control. Journal of Economic Entomology, 103: 1327–1337. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1603/EC09407

Chouvenc, T., & Su, N.Y. (2012). When subterranean termites challenge the rules of fungal epizootics. PloS One, 7: e34484. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0034484

Chouvenc, T., Su, & N.Y. (2015). How do entomologists consume and produce their science? American Entomologist, 61: 252–257. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ae/tmv067

Chouvenc, T., Su, N.Y., & Elliott, M.L. (2008). Interaction between the subterranean termite Reticulitermes flavipes (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) and the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae in foraging arenas. Journal of Economic Entomology, 101: 885–893. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/101.3.885

Chouvenc, T., Su, N.Y., & Grace, J.K. (2011). Fifty years of attempted biological control of termites–Analysis of a failure. Biological Control, 59: 69–82. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2011.06.015

Chouvenc, T., Efstathion, C.A., Elliott, M.L., & Su, N.Y. (2013). Extended disease resistance emerging from the faecal nest of a subterranean termite. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: London, 280(1770): 20131885. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.1885

Chouvenc, T., Li, H.F., & Su, N.Y. (2018). Connecting termite researchers from around the world at ICE 2016. American Entomologist, 64: 152–154. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ae/tmy051

Chouvenc, T., Šobotník, J., Engel, M.S., & Bourguignon, T. (2021). Termite evolution: mutualistic associations, key innovations, and the rise of Termitidae. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences, 78: 2749–2769. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-020-03728-z

Coêlho, C.B., Araújo, E.C., Brasil, I.D.S., das Chagas, K.P., Silva, T.C., Orso, G.A., Mascarenhas, A.R., & Vendruscolo, J. (2023). Biological control of termites: a bibliometric and state-of-the-art review. Nativa, 11: 115-127. DOI: https://doi.org/10.31413/nativa.v11i1.14852

Cowie, R.H., Logan, J.W., & Wood, T.G. (1989). Termite (Isoptera) damage and control in tropical forestry with special reference to Africa and Indo-Malaysia: a review. Bulletin of Entomological Research, 79: 173–184. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007485300018150

Cremer, S., Armitage, S.A., & Schmid-Hempel, P. (2007) Social immunity. Current Biology, 17(16): R693–702. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2007.06.008

Culliney, T.W., & Grace, J.K. (2000). Prospects for the biological control of subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae), with special reference to Coptotermes formosanus. Bulletin of Entomological Research, 90: 9–21. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007485300000663

Delate, K.M., Grace, J.K., & Tome, C.H. (1995). Potential use of pathogenic fungi in baits to control the Formosan subterranean termite (Isopt., Rhinotermitidae). Journal of Applied Entomology, 119(1‐5):429–433. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0418.1995.tb01313.x

DeSouza, O., Miramontes, O., Santos, C.A., & Bernardo, D.L. (2001). Social facilitation affecting tolerance to poisoning in termites (Insecta, Isoptera). Insectes Sociaux, 48(1): 21–24. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/PL00001739

Devi, G. (2019). Biocontrol potential of entomopathogenic nematodes against termites. International Journal of Current Research, 11: 8897–8902.

Dickersin, K. (2005). Publication bias: Recognizing the problem, understanding its origins and scope, and preventing harm. In: Rothstein HR, Sutton AJ, Borenstein M, editors. Publication bias in meta‐analysis: Prevention, assessment and adjustments. Wiley and Sons. p. 9–33. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/0470870168.ch2

Dutta, P., Pegu, J., & Puzari, K.C. (2013). Current status and future prospects of entomopathogenic fungi in Northeast India. Kavaka, 41: 75–86.

Eggleton, P. (2020). The state of the world's insects. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 45: 61-82. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-012420-050035

Evans, T.A., Forschler, B.T., & Grace, J.K. (2013). Biology of invasive termites: a worldwide review. Annual Review of Entomology, 58: 455-474. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-120811-153554

Gelernter, W.D., Lomer, & C.J. (2000). Success in biological control of above-ground insects by pathogens. In: Gurr, G., Wratten, S. (eds). Biological control: measures of success. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp. 297-322 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-4014-0_10

Georgis, R., Poinar, G.J., & Wilson, A.P. (1982). Susceptibility of damp-wood termites and soil and wood-dwelling termites to the entomogenous nematode Neoaplectana carpocapsae. International Research Communications System Medical Science: Microbiology, Parasitology and Infectious Diseases 10: 563.

Ghode, N., & Nema, S. (2025). A review of termite infestation and control measures: Focus on Microtermes and Odontotermes. Journal of Advances in Biology & Biotechnology. 28:486-497. DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/jabb/2025/v28i92900

Grace, K.J. (1994). Protocol for testing effects of microbial pest control agents on nontarget subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Journal of Economic Entomology, 87: 269-274. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/87.2.269

Grace, J.K. (1997). Biological control strategies for suppression of termites. Journal of Agricultural Entomology, 14: 281-289.

Grace, J.K. (2003). Approaches to Biological Control of Termites. Sociobiology, 41: 115-121.

Hänel, H., & Watson, J.A. (1983). Preliminary field tests on the use of Metarhizium anisopliae for the control of Nasutitermes exitiosus (Hill) (Isoptera: Termitidae). Bulletin of Entomological Research, 73: 305-313. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007485300008890

Hassan, A., Li, Z., Zhou, X., Mo, J., & Huang, Q. (2024). Termite management by entomopathogenic fungi: recent advances and future prospects. Current Research in Biotechnology. 2024: 100183. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crbiot.2024.100183

Hanson, M.A., Barreiro, P.G., Crosetto, P., & Brockington, D. (2024). The strain on scientific publishing. Quantitative Science Studies, 5: 823-843. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1162/qss_a_00327

Hellemans, S., Rocha, M.M., Wang, M., Romero Arias, J., Aanen, D.K. et al. (2024) Genomic data provide insights into the classification of extant termites. Nature Communications, 15: 6724. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51028-y

Hernández-Rosas, F., García-Pacheco, L.A., Figueroa-Rodríguez, K.A., Figueroa-Sandoval, B., Salinas Ruiz, J., Sangerman-Jarquín, D.M., Díaz-Sánchez, E.L. (2019). Análisis de las investigaciones sobre Metarhizium anisopliae en los últimos 40 años. Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Agrícolas, 10: 155-66. DOI: https://doi.org/10.29312/remexca.v0i22.1866

Hussey, N.W. (1985). Biological control-a commercial evaluation. Biocontrol News and Information, 6: 93-99.

Jones, W.E., Grace, J.K., & Tamashiro, M. (1996). Virulence of seven isolates of Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae to Coptotermes formosanus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Environmental Entomology, 25: 481–487. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ee/25.2.481

Jouquet, P., Bottinelli, N., Shanbhag, R.R., Bourguignon, T., Traoré, S., & Abbasi, S.A. (2016). Termites: the neglected soil engineers of tropical soils. Soil Science, 181:157-165. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/SS.0000000000000119

Randall, M., & Doody, T.C. (1934). Ground treatments. In: Kofoid et al. [Eds] Termites and termite control, University of California Press. p. 472-483.

Koerber, A., Ardon-Dryer, K., Cummins, R.G., Eko, L., & Kee, K. (2023). The predatory paradox: Ethics, Politics, and Practices in contemporary scholarly publishing. Open book publishers. DOI: https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0364

Kramm, K.R., West, D.F., & Rockenbach, P.G. (1982). Termite pathogens: transfer of the entomopathogen Metarhizium anisopliae between Reticulitermes sp. termites. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 40: 1-6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-2011(82)90029-5

Krishna, K., Grimaldi, D.A., Krishna, V., & Engel, M.S. (2013). Treatise on the Isoptera of the world. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, (377): 1-202. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1206/377.1

Kumar, N.G. (2018). Termites. Pests and Their Management. Springer, Singapore. p. 909-971. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8687-8_25

Kuswanto, E., Ahmad, I, & Dungani, R. (2015). Threat of subterranean termites attack on the wooden buildings in Asian countries and their control: a review. Indian Journal of Entomology, 77: 356-62. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5958/0974-8172.2015.00080.2

La Fage, J.P. (1986). Subterranean termites: A personal perspective. In: Proceedings of the National Conference on Urban Entomology (pp. 45-57). Department of Entomology, Clemson University.

Lai, P.Y., Tamashiro, M., Fujit, J.K. (1982). Pathogenicity of six strains of entomogenous fungi to Coptotermes formosanus. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 39: 1-5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-2011(82)90150-1

Langewald, J., & Cherry, A. (2000). Prospects for microbial pest control in West Africa. Biocontrol News Information 21, 21N–26N.

Lax, A.R., & Osbrink, W.L. (2003). United States Department of Agriculture - Agriculture Research Service. Research on targeted management of the Formosan subterranean termite Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Pest Management Science, 59: 788-800. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.721

Lenz, M. (2009). Laboratory bioassays with subterranean termites (Isoptera)-the importance of termite biology. Sociobiology, 53: 573–595.

Liu, L., Li, G., Sun, P., Lei, C., & Huang, Q. (2015). Experimental verification and molecular basis of active immunization against fungal pathogens in termites. Scientific Reports, 5: 15106. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/srep15106

Logan, J.W., Cowie, R.H., & Wood, T.G. (1990). Termite (Isoptera) control in agriculture and forestry by non-chemical methods: a review. Bulletin of Entomological Research, 80(3): 309-330. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007485300050513

Mauldin, J.K. (1986). Nematodes flunk again. In: Mix, J. 1986. Pest Control, 54: 48-54. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01201908

Meena, R., Meena, D., & Naqvi, A. (2017). Evaluation of entomopathogenic fungi and imidacloprid against termites as seed treatment on chickpea. Indian Journal of Applied Entomology, 31: 23-29.

Mlinarić, A, Horvat, M., & Šupak Smolčić, V. (2017). Dealing with the positive publication bias: Why you should really publish your negative results. Biochemia Medica, 27: 447-452. DOI: https://doi.org/10.11613/BM.2017.030201

Milner, R.J., & Pereira, R.M. (2007). Microbial control of urban pests–cockroaches, ants, and termites. In Field Manual of Techniques in Invertebrate Pathology: Application and evaluation of pathogens for control of insects and other invertebrate pests (pp. 695-711). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-5933-9_34

Milner, R.J., Staples, J.A., Hartley, T.R., Lutton, G.G., Driver, F., & Watson, J.A. (1998). Occurrence of Metarhizium anisopliae in nests and feeding sites of Australian termites. Mycological Research, 102: 216-220. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0953756297004735

Mishra, P., Verma, M., Jha, S., Tripathi, A., Pandey, A., Dikshit, A., & Sharma, S. (2021). Biological approaches to termite management: A review. Current Botany, 12: 121-131. DOI: https://doi.org/10.25081/cb.2021.v12.7021

Mogilicherla, K., Chakraborty, A., Taning, N.T., Smagghe, G., & Roy, A. (2023). RNAi in termites (Isoptera): current status and prospects for pest management. Entomologia Generalis, 43:55-68. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1127/entomologia/2022/1636

Mohammed, Ali, N.S., Hassen, Z.N., & Shafeeq Al Salihi, M.A. (2019). Efficacy of fungi and bacteria against termites: a mini review. Biochemical and Cellular Archives, 2019: 19.

Mubeen, M., Iftikhar, Y., Ahmar, S., Abbas, A., Hassan, F., & Murtaza, M. (2019). Management of Termites Using Wood Extractives and Microbes: A Mini Review. 2019. International Journal of Life Sciences, 5: 2402-2414 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21276/SSR-IIJLS.2019.5.5.5

Myles, T.G. (2002). Laboratory studies on the transmission of Metarhizium anisopliae in the eastern subterranean termite, Reticulitermes flavipes (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae), with a method for applying appropriate doses of conidia to trapped termites for release. Sociobiology, 40: 277-280.

Nakai, M., & Lacey, L.A. (2017). Microbial control of insect pests of tea and coffee. In: Lacey, L.A. (ed.) Microbial control of insect and mite pests. Academic Press. pp. 223-235. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-803527-6.00015-9

Nalepa, C.A. (2015). Origin of termite eusociality: trophallaxis integrates the social, nutritional, and microbial environments. Ecological Entomology, 40: 323-35. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/een.12197

Nissen, S.B., Magidson, T., Gross, K., & Bergstrom, C.T. (2016). Publication bias and the canonization of false facts. eLife, 5: e21451. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.21451

Pandey, A.K., Deka, B., Varshney, R., Cheramgoi, E.C., & Babu, A. (2021). Do the beneficial fungi manage phytosanitary problems in the tea agro-ecosystem? BioControl, 66: 445-462. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10526-021-10084-9

Qasim, M., Lin, Y., Fang, D., & Wang, L. (2015) Termites and microbial biological control strategies. South Asia Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies, 1: 32-62.

Rath, A.C. (2000). The use of entomopathogenic fungi for control of termites. Biocontrol Science and Technology, 10: 563-581. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/095831500750016370

Ramakrishnan, R., Suiter, D.R., Nakatsu, C.H., Humber, R.A., & Bennett, G.W. (1999). Imidacloprid-enhanced Reticulitermes flavipes (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) susceptibility to the entomopathogen Metarhizium anisopliae. Journal of Economic Entomology, 92: 1125-1132. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/92.5.1125

Rana, A., Chandel, R.S., Verma, K.S., &Joshi, M.J. (2021). Termites in important crops and their management. Indian Journal of Entomology, 83: 486-504. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5958/0974-8172.2021.00001.8

Raza, S., Riaz, A., & Rasib, K.Z. (2019). Synergistic Effect of Fungus Metarhizium anisopliae and Slow Acting Toxicants Fipronil and Imidacloprid against Subterranean Termites: Termites Control by Fungus and Toxicants. Biological Sciences-PJSIR. 62: 88-96. DOI: https://doi.org/10.52763/PJSIR.BIOL.SCI.62.2.2019.88.96

Remadevi, O.K., Sasidharan, T.O., Balachander, M., & Bai, N.S.(2010). Metarhizium based mycoinsecticides for forest pest management. Journal of Biopesticides, 3: 470-473. DOI: https://doi.org/10.57182/jbiopestic.3.2.470-473

Riaz, A., & Raza, S. (2018). Effect of Entomopathogenic Fungi and Non-repellent Toxicants Fipronil and Imidacloprid Against Termites: A Review. Lahore Garrison University Journal of Life Sciences, 2: 51-64. DOI: https://doi.org/10.54692/lgujls.2018.020145

Resnik, D.B., & Hosseini, M. (2025). The ethics of using artificial intelligence in scientific research: new guidance needed for a new tool. AI and Ethics. 5: 1499-1521. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43681-024-00493-8

Rosengaus, R.B., &Traniello, J.F. (1997). Pathobiology and disease transmission in dampwood termites (Zootermopsis angusticollis (Isoptera: Termopsidae)) infected with the fungus Metarhizium anisopliae (Deuteromycotina: Hyphomycetes). Sociobiology, 30: 165-195.

Rosengaus, R.B., Maxmen, A.B., Coates, L.E., & Traniello, J.F. (1998). Disease resistance: a benefit of sociality in the dampwood termite Zootermopsis angusticollis (Isoptera: Termopsidae). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 44: 125-134. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s002650050523

Rosengaus, R.B., Traniello, J.F., & Bulmer, M.S. (2011). Ecology, behavior and evolution of disease resistance in termites. In: Bignell, D., Roisin, Y., & Lo, N. (eds) Biology of termites: a modern synthesis. p.165-191. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-3977-4_7

Roy, S., & Muraleedharan, N. (2014). Microbial management of arthropod pests of tea: current state and prospects. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 98: 5375-5386. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-014-5749-9

Rust, M.K., & Su, N.Y. (2012). Managing social insects of urban importance. Annual Review of Entomology, 57: 355-375. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-120710-100634

Sahayaraj, K. (2018). Bio-intensive integrated management of termites. In: Khan, M., & Ahmad, W. (eds) Termites and Sustainable Management: Volume 2-Economic Losses and Management. Springer. p.165-180. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-68726-1_7

Sandhu, S.S., Sharma, A.K., Beniwal, V., Goel, G., Batra, P., Kumar, A., Jaglan, S., Sharma, A.K., & Malhotra, S. (2012). Myco-biocontrol of insect pests: factors involved, mechanism, and regulation. Journal of Pathogens, 2012: e126819. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/126819

Scharf, M.E. (2015). Termites as targets and models for biotechnology. Annual Review of Entomology, 60: 77-102. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-010814-020902

Schmid-Hempel, P. (1998). Parasites in social insects. Princeton University Press. 392p. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9780691206851

Shoaib, M., Qureshi, N.A., Ali, M.A., & Afzal, M. (2025). Synergistic effects of indigenous entomopathogenic Fusarium spp. with low-dose termiticides for sustainable Coptotermes heimi Control. Planta Animalia, 4: 411-419. DOI: https://doi.org/10.71454/PA.004.06.0308

Siderhurst, M.S., James, D.M., Rithner, C.D., Dick, D.L., & Bjostad, L.B. (2005). Isolation and characterization of norharmane from Reticulitermes termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Journal of Economic Entomology, 98: 1669-1678. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/98.5.1669

Sindle, A., & Martin, K. (2021). Art of prevention: Essential oils-natural products not necessarily safe. International Journal of Women's Dermatology, 7: 304-308. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijwd.2020.10.013

Sindhu, S.S., Rakshiya, Y.S., & Verma, M.K. (2011). Biological control of termites by antagonistic soil microorganisms. In: Singh, A., Parmar, N., & Kuhad, R. (eds) Bioaugmentation, biostimulation and biocontrol. Soil Biology, vol 108. Springer. p.261-309. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-19769-7_12

Sindhu, S.S., Sehrawat, A., Sharma, R., & Khandelwal, A. (2017). Biological control of insect pests for sustainable agriculture. In: Adhya, T., Mishra, B., Annapurna, K., Verma, D., & Kumar, U. (eds) Advances in Soil Microbiology: Recent Trends and Future Prospects: Volume 2: Soil-Microbe-Plant Interaction. Springer. p.189-218. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7380-9_9

Staples, J.A., & Milner, R.J. (2000). Improved formulation of Metarhizium for biological control of termites. CSIRO Division of Entomology, Technical Report No. 86, Australia. p. 37.

Stern, J.M., & Simes, R.J. (1997). Publication bias: evidence of delayed publication in a cohort study of clinical research projects. BMJ. 315(7109): 640-645. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.315.7109.640

Stewart, A., Brownbridge, M., Hill, R.A., & Jackson, T.A. (2010). Utilizing soil microbes for biocontrol. In: Dixon, G., & Tilston, E. (eds) Soil microbiology and sustainable crop production. Springer. p.315-371. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9479-7_9

Su, N.Y. (2019). Development of baits for population management of subterranean termites. Annual Review of Entomology, 64: 115-130. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-011118-112429

Su, N.Y., & Lee, C.Y. (2023). Biology and Management of the Formosan Subterranean Termite and Related Species. CABI. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1079/9781800621596.0000

Su, N.Y., & Scheffrahn, R.H. (1998). A review of subterranean termite control practices and prospects for integrated pest management programs. Integrated Pest Management Reviews. 3: 1-13. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009684821954

Sun, J., Fuxa, J.R., & Henderson, G. (2003). Effects of virulence, sporulation, and temperature on Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana laboratory transmission in Coptotermes formosanus. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 84: 38-46. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-2011(03)00122-8

Toumanoff, C., & Rombaut, J. (1965). Action de certains champignons entomophages, cultivés sur les milieux appropriés attractifs, sur le termite de Saintonge - Reticulotermes santonensis (de Feytaud). Annales de Parasitologie Humaine et Comparée. 40: 605-609. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1051/parasite/1965405605

Traniello, J.F., Rosengaus, R.B., & Savoie, K. (2002). The development of immunity in a social insect: evidence for the group facilitation of disease resistance. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 99: 6838-6842. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.102176599

Verma, M., Sharma, S., & Prasad, R. (2009). Biological alternatives for termite control: A review. International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation, 63: 959-972. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibiod.2009.05.009

Verma, M., Verma, S., & Sharma, S. (2018). Eco-friendly termite management in tropical conditions. In: Khan, M., & Ahmad, W. (eds) Termites and sustainable management: Volume 2 - Economic losses and management. Springer. p.137-164. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-68726-1_6

Verma, P., Yadav, A.N., Kumar, V., Khan, M.A., & Saxena, A.K. (2018). Microbes in termite management: potential role and strategies. In: Khan, M., & Ahmad, W. (eds) Termites and sustainable management: Volume 2 - Economic losses and management. Springer. p.197-217. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-68726-1_9

Wang, C., Henderson, G., Gautam, B.K., & Chen, X. (2014). Lethal and sublethal effects of lufenuron on the Formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Journal of Economic Entomology, 107: 1573-1581. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1603/EC14103

Wells, J.D., Fuxa, J.R., & Henderson, G. (1995). Virulence of Four Fungal Pathogens to Coptotermes formosanus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Journal of Entomological Science, 30: 208-215. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18474/0749-8004-30.2.208

Wright, M.S., Osbrink, W.L., & Lax, A.R. (2002). Transfer of entomopathogenic fungi among Formosan subterranean termites and subsequent mortality. Journal of Applied Entomology, 126: 20-23. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-0418.2002.00604.x

Wright, M.S., & Lax, A.R. (2013). Combined effect of microbial and chemical control agents on subterranean termites. Journal of Microbiology, 51: 578-83. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12275-013-2628-5

Xu, D., Song, X.G., & Ruan, G.H. (2013). Current research progress in bio-control against termites. Chinese Journal of Hygienic Insecticides and Equipment, 3: 244-246.

Yii, J.E., Bong, C.F., King, J.H., & Kadir, J. (2016). Synergism of entomopathogenic fungus, Metarhizium anisopliae incorporated with fipronil against oil palm pest subterranean termite, Coptotermes curvignathus. Plant Protection Science, 52: 35-44. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17221/82/2015-PPS

Zhao, C., Lu, H., Cheng, R., Zhao, P., Zhang, G., Chen, H., Tang, Q., & Liu, L. (2025). T7-Synthesized Double-Stranded RNA Mimicking miR-71 Induces Termite RNAi and Increases Fungal Efficacy. Biomolecules, 15: 1517. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/biom15111517

Zeck, W.M. (1992). Synergism between a new insecticide and entomogenous fungi in the control of subterranean termites. In: Proceedings of 25th Annual Meeting of the Society of Invertebrate Pathology, August 20–23, 1992, Heidelberg, Germany.

Zoberi, M.H. (1995). Metarhizium anisopliae, a fungal pathogen of Reticulitermes flavipes (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Mycologia 87: 354-359. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00275514.1995.12026539