The Termite Biological Control Continued Optimism Must Face its Ongoing Absence of Potential

Thomas Chouvenc

doi:10.13102/sociobiology.v73i2.12626

Authors

Thomas Chouvenc Ft. Lauderdale Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida, USA

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.13102/sociobiology.v73i2.12626

Keywords:

termite, publication bias, biological control, academia

Abstract

The following piece is unusual in all respects, as it does not follow the rigorous objective nature of a scientific review. As a fair warning, it is instead a rather personal opinion piece, so as to hopefully generate much-needed discussions within a relatively small field of research, yet a remarkably persistent one. Here, I have the opportunity to express a personal perspective and share my experiences about the general field of termite biological control research, and I truly hope that the obvious frustration permeating from these lines will be processed by the reader as a friendly -yet realistic- analysis of the termite biological control endeavor. From interacting with many colleagues in the past two decades while sharing my pessimistic views on the topic, I noticed two opposite reactions: the first one was in the lines of “we all already know, Thomas, why do you keep beating on that dead horse?,” while the second one was more like “You can’t say that Thomas, we just need more innovative research to make it work!” Such discrepancies in reactions reflect the two mutually exclusive realities that I personally have to interact with regularly, as a solicited reviewer and as a reader keeping up with the termite literature. Consequently, the writing process of the following opinion is inherently tainted with value judgment -some would say ‘incendiary’- but I find it most genuinely necessary so as to move the discussion into a non-candid realm, which remains at the core of the issue. Finally, while I may be wrong on some of these statements, as a putative research breakthrough may change the equation in a distant future, I may stay correct for a foreseeable one. Overall, I hope this piece will help any new venturer on this topic to be skeptical of the accumulated literature and to take the time to look at the larger picture before engaging in such research. In this opinion piece, 1) I review the termite biological control from an academic perspective, and 2) I then discuss what happened to this field of research since 2011 while highlighting the lingering problems surrounding termite biological control research.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

Afzal, M., Rasib, K.Z., & Qureshi, N.A. (2018). Fipronil enhanced natural occurrence of Fusarium solani (Hypocreales: Nectriaceae) on building infesting termite Heterotermes indicola Wasmann (Blattodea: Rhinotermitidae). Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology, 21:493–500.

Ahmad, T., Nabi, S., & Humera, Q. (2018). Biotechnology: a tool in termite management. In: Khan, M. & Ahmad, W., Eds. Termites and Sustainable Management: Volume 2-Economic Losses and Management. Springer. p. 289–315.

Ahmad, F., Fouad, H., Liang, S.Y., Hu, Y., & Mo, J.C. (2019). Termites and Chinese agricultural system: applications and advances in integrated termite management and chemical control. Insectes Sociaux, 28: 2–20.

Anta, J. (2025). Intellectual inflation: one way for scientific research to degenerate. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 109: 134-145.

Askary, H., Ghaffari, S., Asgari, M., & Karimi, J. (2021). Fungal entomopathogens of order Hypocreales. In: Karimi, J., & Madadi, H., Eds. Biological control of insect and mite pests in Iran: a review from fundamental and applied aspects Cham: Springer International Publishing. p. 439–480.

Awasthi, I., Gagneja, S., Aggarwal, M., Patra, A., Capalash, N., & Sharma, P. (2024). Biological Control Strategies for Termite Management. Preprints.

Baïmey, H., Zadji, L., Afouda, L., Fanou, A., Kotchofa, R., & Decraemer, W. (2017). Searching for better methodologies for successful control of termites using entomopathogenic nematodes. In: Shah, M.M. & Mahamood, M. Eds. Nematology-Concepts, Diagnosis and Control. Intech, Croatia. p. 53–84.

Bharti, L., Yadav, K. & Chaubey, A.K., (2025). Integrated Management of Termites. In: Shields, V.D.C. & Owen, R.E. Eds. Advances in termite, bee, and wasp biology - ecology, physiology, and integrated management. Intechopen. Rijeka.

Bar-On, Y.M., Phillips, R., & Milo, R. (2018). The biomass distribution on Earth. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 115: 6506–6511.

Bayen, S., Modak, D., Roy, S., Chakraborti, D., & Babu, A. (2024). Non-chemical management of termite pests: An overview. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science, 21:1-7.

Becker, G. (1969). Rearing of termites and testing methods used in the laboratory. In: Krishna, K & Weesner, F. M. Eds. Biology of termites. Vol. 1. Academic Press, New York. pp. 351–385.

Boucias, D.G., Stokes, C., Storey, G., & Pendland, J.C. (1996). The effects of imidacloprid on the termite Reticulitermes flavipes and its interaction with the mycopathogen Beauveria bassiana. Pflanzenschutz-Nachrichten Bayer, 49:103–144.

Boulesteix, A.L. (2010). Over-optimism in bioinformatics research. Bioinformatics. 26: 437–439.

Chellappan, M., & Ranjith, M.T. (2021). Termites. In: Omkar, Eds. Polyphagous pests of crops. Springer, Singapore. p. 51–104.

Chen, T., Zeng, W.H., Yan, X., Li, Z.Q. (2023). Current status of research on the use of entomopathogenic nematodes as a biological control for termites. Chinese Journal of Applied Entomology, 59: 29-39.

Chen, W.W., Zeng, W.H., Shen, D.N., Feng, S.Y., & Li, Z.Q. (2023). Genome-wide identification of Coptotermes formosanus immune genes and their potential roles in termite control. Gene, 877: 147569.

Chen, W., & Li, Z. (2025). miR-571 manipulating termite immune response to fungus and showing potential for green management of Coptotermes formosanus (Blattodea: Isoptera). Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology, 208: 106274.

Chouvenc, T. (2011). Historical overview of termite biological control. In: Second Formosan subterranean termite symposium. New Orleans, LA.

Chouvenc, T. (2023). Using Coptotermes for laboratory experiments: field collection, laboratory rearing, and bioassay visualization. In: Su, N.Y., & Lee, C.Y. Eds. Biology and Management of the Formosan Subterranean Termite and Related Species. CABI. p. 365–393.

Chouvenc, T., & Su, N.Y. (2010). Apparent synergy among defense mechanisms in subterranean termites (Rhinotermitidae) against epizootic events: Limits and potential for biological control. Journal of Economic Entomology, 103: 1327–1337.

Chouvenc, T., & Su, N.Y. (2012). When subterranean termites challenge the rules of fungal epizootics. PloS One, 7: e34484.

Chouvenc, T., Su, & N.Y. (2015). How do entomologists consume and produce their science? American Entomologist, 61: 252–257.

Chouvenc, T., Su, N.Y., & Elliott, M.L. (2008). Interaction between the subterranean termite Reticulitermes flavipes (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) and the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae in foraging arenas. Journal of Economic Entomology, 101: 885–893.

Chouvenc, T., Su, N.Y., & Grace, J.K. (2011). Fifty years of attempted biological control of termites–Analysis of a failure. Biological Control, 59: 69–82.

Chouvenc, T., Efstathion, C.A., Elliott, M.L., & Su, N.Y. (2013). Extended disease resistance emerging from the faecal nest of a subterranean termite. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: London, 280(1770): 20131885.

Chouvenc, T., Li, H.F., & Su, N.Y. (2018). Connecting termite researchers from around the world at ICE 2016. American Entomologist, 64: 152–154.

Chouvenc, T., Šobotník, J., Engel, M.S., & Bourguignon, T. (2021). Termite evolution: mutualistic associations, key innovations, and the rise of Termitidae. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences, 78: 2749–2769.

Coêlho, C.B., Araújo, E.C., Brasil, I.D.S., das Chagas, K.P., Silva, T.C., Orso, G.A., Mascarenhas, A.R., & Vendruscolo, J. (2023). Biological control of termites: a bibliometric and state-of-the-art review. Nativa, 11: 115-127.

Cowie, R.H., Logan, J.W., & Wood, T.G. (1989). Termite (Isoptera) damage and control in tropical forestry with special reference to Africa and Indo-Malaysia: a review. Bulletin of Entomological Research, 79: 173–184.

Cremer, S., Armitage, S.A., & Schmid-Hempel, P. (2007) Social immunity. Current Biology, 17(16): R693–702.

Culliney, T.W., & Grace, J.K. (2000). Prospects for the biological control of subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae), with special reference to Coptotermes formosanus. Bulletin of Entomological Research, 90: 9–21.

Delate, K.M., Grace, J.K., & Tome, C.H. (1995). Potential use of pathogenic fungi in baits to control the Formosan subterranean termite (Isopt., Rhinotermitidae). Journal of Applied Entomology, 119(1‐5):429–433.

DeSouza, O., Miramontes, O., Santos, C.A., & Bernardo, D.L. (2001). Social facilitation affecting tolerance to poisoning in termites (Insecta, Isoptera). Insectes Sociaux, 48(1): 21–24.

Devi, G. (2019). Biocontrol potential of entomopathogenic nematodes against termites. International Journal of Current Research, 11: 8897–8902.

Dickersin, K. (2005). Publication bias: Recognizing the problem, understanding its origins and scope, and preventing harm. In: Rothstein HR, Sutton AJ, Borenstein M, editors. Publication bias in meta‐analysis: Prevention, assessment and adjustments. Wiley and Sons. p. 9–33.

Dutta, P., Pegu, J., & Puzari, K.C. (2013). Current status and future prospects of entomopathogenic fungi in Northeast India. Kavaka, 41: 75–86.

Eggleton, P. (2020). The state of the world's insects. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 45: 61-82.

Evans, T.A., Forschler, B.T., & Grace, J.K. (2013). Biology of invasive termites: a worldwide review. Annual Review of Entomology, 58: 455-474.

Gelernter, W.D., Lomer, & C.J. (2000). Success in biological control of above-ground insects by pathogens. In: Gurr, G., Wratten, S. (eds). Biological control: measures of success. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp. 297-322

Georgis, R., Poinar, G.J., & Wilson, A.P. (1982). Susceptibility of damp-wood termites and soil and wood-dwelling termites to the entomogenous nematode Neoaplectana carpocapsae. International Research Communications System Medical Science: Microbiology, Parasitology and Infectious Diseases 10: 563.

Ghode, N., & Nema, S. (2025). A review of termite infestation and control measures: Focus on Microtermes and Odontotermes. Journal of Advances in Biology & Biotechnology. 28:486-497.

Grace, K.J. (1994). Protocol for testing effects of microbial pest control agents on nontarget subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Journal of Economic Entomology, 87: 269-274.

Grace, J.K. (1997). Biological control strategies for suppression of termites. Journal of Agricultural Entomology, 14: 281-289.

Grace, J.K. (2003). Approaches to Biological Control of Termites. Sociobiology, 41: 115-121.

Hänel, H., & Watson, J.A. (1983). Preliminary field tests on the use of Metarhizium anisopliae for the control of Nasutitermes exitiosus (Hill) (Isoptera: Termitidae). Bulletin of Entomological Research, 73: 305-313.

Hassan, A., Li, Z., Zhou, X., Mo, J., & Huang, Q. (2024). Termite management by entomopathogenic fungi: recent advances and future prospects. Current Research in Biotechnology. 2024: 100183.

Hanson, M.A., Barreiro, P.G., Crosetto, P., & Brockington, D. (2024). The strain on scientific publishing. Quantitative Science Studies, 5: 823-843.

Hellemans, S., Rocha, M.M., Wang, M., Romero Arias, J., Aanen, D.K. et al. (2024) Genomic data provide insights into the classification of extant termites. Nature Communications, 15: 6724.

Hernández-Rosas, F., García-Pacheco, L.A., Figueroa-Rodríguez, K.A., Figueroa-Sandoval, B., Salinas Ruiz, J., Sangerman-Jarquín, D.M., Díaz-Sánchez, E.L. (2019). Análisis de las investigaciones sobre Metarhizium anisopliae en los últimos 40 años. Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Agrícolas, 10: 155-66.

Hussey, N.W. (1985). Biological control-a commercial evaluation. Biocontrol News and Information, 6: 93-99.

Jones, W.E., Grace, J.K., & Tamashiro, M. (1996). Virulence of seven isolates of Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae to Coptotermes formosanus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Environmental Entomology, 25: 481–487.

Jouquet, P., Bottinelli, N., Shanbhag, R.R., Bourguignon, T., Traoré, S., & Abbasi, S.A. (2016). Termites: the neglected soil engineers of tropical soils. Soil Science, 181:157-165.

Randall, M., & Doody, T.C. (1934). Ground treatments. In: Kofoid et al. [Eds] Termites and termite control, University of California Press. p. 472-483.

Koerber, A., Ardon-Dryer, K., Cummins, R.G., Eko, L., & Kee, K. (2023). The predatory paradox: Ethics, Politics, and Practices in contemporary scholarly publishing. Open book publishers.

Kramm, K.R., West, D.F., & Rockenbach, P.G. (1982). Termite pathogens: transfer of the entomopathogen Metarhizium anisopliae between Reticulitermes sp. termites. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 40: 1-6.

Krishna, K., Grimaldi, D.A., Krishna, V., & Engel, M.S. (2013). Treatise on the Isoptera of the world. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, (377): 1-202.

Kumar, N.G. (2018). Termites. Pests and Their Management. Springer, Singapore. p. 909-971.

Kuswanto, E., Ahmad, I, & Dungani, R. (2015). Threat of subterranean termites attack on the wooden buildings in Asian countries and their control: a review. Indian Journal of Entomology, 77: 356-62.

La Fage, J.P. (1986). Subterranean termites: A personal perspective. In: Proceedings of the National Conference on Urban Entomology (pp. 45-57). Department of Entomology, Clemson University.

Lai, P.Y., Tamashiro, M., Fujit, J.K. (1982). Pathogenicity of six strains of entomogenous fungi to Coptotermes formosanus. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 39: 1-5.

Langewald, J., & Cherry, A. (2000). Prospects for microbial pest control in West Africa. Biocontrol News Information 21, 21N–26N.

Lax, A.R., & Osbrink, W.L. (2003). United States Department of Agriculture - Agriculture Research Service. Research on targeted management of the Formosan subterranean termite Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Pest Management Science, 59: 788-800.

Lenz, M. (2009). Laboratory bioassays with subterranean termites (Isoptera)-the importance of termite biology. Sociobiology, 53: 573–595.

Liu, L., Li, G., Sun, P., Lei, C., & Huang, Q. (2015). Experimental verification and molecular basis of active immunization against fungal pathogens in termites. Scientific Reports, 5: 15106.

Logan, J.W., Cowie, R.H., & Wood, T.G. (1990). Termite (Isoptera) control in agriculture and forestry by non-chemical methods: a review. Bulletin of Entomological Research, 80(3): 309-330.

Mauldin, J.K. (1986). Nematodes flunk again. In: Mix, J. 1986. Pest Control, 54: 48-54.

Meena, R., Meena, D., & Naqvi, A. (2017). Evaluation of entomopathogenic fungi and imidacloprid against termites as seed treatment on chickpea. Indian Journal of Applied Entomology, 31: 23-29.

Mlinarić, A, Horvat, M., & Šupak Smolčić, V. (2017). Dealing with the positive publication bias: Why you should really publish your negative results. Biochemia Medica, 27: 447-452.

Milner, R.J., & Pereira, R.M. (2007). Microbial control of urban pests–cockroaches, ants, and termites. In Field Manual of Techniques in Invertebrate Pathology: Application and evaluation of pathogens for control of insects and other invertebrate pests (pp. 695-711). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands.

Milner, R.J., Staples, J.A., Hartley, T.R., Lutton, G.G., Driver, F., & Watson, J.A. (1998). Occurrence of Metarhizium anisopliae in nests and feeding sites of Australian termites. Mycological Research, 102: 216-220.

Mishra, P., Verma, M., Jha, S., Tripathi, A., Pandey, A., Dikshit, A., & Sharma, S. (2021). Biological approaches to termite management: A review. Current Botany, 12: 121-131.

Mogilicherla, K., Chakraborty, A., Taning, N.T., Smagghe, G., & Roy, A. (2023). RNAi in termites (Isoptera): current status and prospects for pest management. Entomologia Generalis, 43:55-68.

Mohammed, Ali, N.S., Hassen, Z.N., & Shafeeq Al Salihi, M.A. (2019). Efficacy of fungi and bacteria against termites: a mini review. Biochemical and Cellular Archives, 2019: 19.

Mubeen, M., Iftikhar, Y., Ahmar, S., Abbas, A., Hassan, F., & Murtaza, M. (2019). Management of Termites Using Wood Extractives and Microbes: A Mini Review. 2019. International Journal of Life Sciences, 5: 2402-2414

Myles, T.G. (2002). Laboratory studies on the transmission of Metarhizium anisopliae in the eastern subterranean termite, Reticulitermes flavipes (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae), with a method for applying appropriate doses of conidia to trapped termites for release. Sociobiology, 40: 277-280.

Nakai, M., & Lacey, L.A. (2017). Microbial control of insect pests of tea and coffee. In: Lacey, L.A. (ed.) Microbial control of insect and mite pests. Academic Press. pp. 223-235.

Nalepa, C.A. (2015). Origin of termite eusociality: trophallaxis integrates the social, nutritional, and microbial environments. Ecological Entomology, 40: 323-35.

Nissen, S.B., Magidson, T., Gross, K., & Bergstrom, C.T. (2016). Publication bias and the canonization of false facts. eLife, 5: e21451.

Pandey, A.K., Deka, B., Varshney, R., Cheramgoi, E.C., & Babu, A. (2021). Do the beneficial fungi manage phytosanitary problems in the tea agro-ecosystem? BioControl, 66: 445-462.

Qasim, M., Lin, Y., Fang, D., & Wang, L. (2015) Termites and microbial biological control strategies. South Asia Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies, 1: 32-62.

Rath, A.C. (2000). The use of entomopathogenic fungi for control of termites. Biocontrol Science and Technology, 10: 563-581.

Ramakrishnan, R., Suiter, D.R., Nakatsu, C.H., Humber, R.A., & Bennett, G.W. (1999). Imidacloprid-enhanced Reticulitermes flavipes (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) susceptibility to the entomopathogen Metarhizium anisopliae. Journal of Economic Entomology, 92: 1125-1132.

Rana, A., Chandel, R.S., Verma, K.S., &Joshi, M.J. (2021). Termites in important crops and their management. Indian Journal of Entomology, 83: 486-504.

Raza, S., Riaz, A., & Rasib, K.Z. (2019). Synergistic Effect of Fungus Metarhizium anisopliae and Slow Acting Toxicants Fipronil and Imidacloprid against Subterranean Termites: Termites Control by Fungus and Toxicants. Biological Sciences-PJSIR. 62: 88-96.

Remadevi, O.K., Sasidharan, T.O., Balachander, M., & Bai, N.S.(2010). Metarhizium based mycoinsecticides for forest pest management. Journal of Biopesticides, 3: 470-473.

Riaz, A., & Raza, S. (2018). Effect of Entomopathogenic Fungi and Non-repellent Toxicants Fipronil and Imidacloprid Against Termites: A Review. Lahore Garrison University Journal of Life Sciences, 2: 51-64.

Resnik, D.B., & Hosseini, M. (2025). The ethics of using artificial intelligence in scientific research: new guidance needed for a new tool. AI and Ethics. 5: 1499-1521.

Rosengaus, R.B., &Traniello, J.F. (1997). Pathobiology and disease transmission in dampwood termites (Zootermopsis angusticollis (Isoptera: Termopsidae)) infected with the fungus Metarhizium anisopliae (Deuteromycotina: Hyphomycetes). Sociobiology, 30: 165-195.

Rosengaus, R.B., Maxmen, A.B., Coates, L.E., & Traniello, J.F. (1998). Disease resistance: a benefit of sociality in the dampwood termite Zootermopsis angusticollis (Isoptera: Termopsidae). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 44: 125-134.

Rosengaus, R.B., Traniello, J.F., & Bulmer, M.S. (2011). Ecology, behavior and evolution of disease resistance in termites. In: Bignell, D., Roisin, Y., & Lo, N. (eds) Biology of termites: a modern synthesis. p.165-191.

Roy, S., & Muraleedharan, N. (2014). Microbial management of arthropod pests of tea: current state and prospects. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 98: 5375-5386.

Rust, M.K., & Su, N.Y. (2012). Managing social insects of urban importance. Annual Review of Entomology, 57: 355-375.

Sahayaraj, K. (2018). Bio-intensive integrated management of termites. In: Khan, M., & Ahmad, W. (eds) Termites and Sustainable Management: Volume 2-Economic Losses and Management. Springer. p.165-180.

Sandhu, S.S., Sharma, A.K., Beniwal, V., Goel, G., Batra, P., Kumar, A., Jaglan, S., Sharma, A.K., & Malhotra, S. (2012). Myco-biocontrol of insect pests: factors involved, mechanism, and regulation. Journal of Pathogens, 2012: e126819.

Scharf, M.E. (2015). Termites as targets and models for biotechnology. Annual Review of Entomology, 60: 77-102.

Schmid-Hempel, P. (1998). Parasites in social insects. Princeton University Press. 392p.

Shoaib, M., Qureshi, N.A., Ali, M.A., & Afzal, M. (2025). Synergistic effects of indigenous entomopathogenic Fusarium spp. with low-dose termiticides for sustainable Coptotermes heimi Control. Planta Animalia, 4: 411-419.

Siderhurst, M.S., James, D.M., Rithner, C.D., Dick, D.L., & Bjostad, L.B. (2005). Isolation and characterization of norharmane from Reticulitermes termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Journal of Economic Entomology, 98: 1669-1678.

Sindle, A., & Martin, K. (2021). Art of prevention: Essential oils-natural products not necessarily safe. International Journal of Women's Dermatology, 7: 304-308.

Sindhu, S.S., Rakshiya, Y.S., & Verma, M.K. (2011). Biological control of termites by antagonistic soil microorganisms. In: Singh, A., Parmar, N., & Kuhad, R. (eds) Bioaugmentation, biostimulation and biocontrol. Soil Biology, vol 108. Springer. p.261-309.

Sindhu, S.S., Sehrawat, A., Sharma, R., & Khandelwal, A. (2017). Biological control of insect pests for sustainable agriculture. In: Adhya, T., Mishra, B., Annapurna, K., Verma, D., & Kumar, U. (eds) Advances in Soil Microbiology: Recent Trends and Future Prospects: Volume 2: Soil-Microbe-Plant Interaction. Springer. p.189-218.

Staples, J.A., & Milner, R.J. (2000). Improved formulation of Metarhizium for biological control of termites. CSIRO Division of Entomology, Technical Report No. 86, Australia. p. 37.

Stern, J.M., & Simes, R.J. (1997). Publication bias: evidence of delayed publication in a cohort study of clinical research projects. BMJ. 315(7109): 640-645.

Stewart, A., Brownbridge, M., Hill, R.A., & Jackson, T.A. (2010). Utilizing soil microbes for biocontrol. In: Dixon, G., & Tilston, E. (eds) Soil microbiology and sustainable crop production. Springer. p.315-371.

Su, N.Y. (2019). Development of baits for population management of subterranean termites. Annual Review of Entomology, 64: 115-130.

Su, N.Y., & Lee, C.Y. (2023). Biology and Management of the Formosan Subterranean Termite and Related Species. CABI.

Su, N.Y., & Scheffrahn, R.H. (1998). A review of subterranean termite control practices and prospects for integrated pest management programs. Integrated Pest Management Reviews. 3: 1-13.

Sun, J., Fuxa, J.R., & Henderson, G. (2003). Effects of virulence, sporulation, and temperature on Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana laboratory transmission in Coptotermes formosanus. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 84: 38-46.

Toumanoff, C., & Rombaut, J. (1965). Action de certains champignons entomophages, cultivés sur les milieux appropriés attractifs, sur le termite de Saintonge - Reticulotermes santonensis (de Feytaud). Annales de Parasitologie Humaine et Comparée. 40: 605-609.

Traniello, J.F., Rosengaus, R.B., & Savoie, K. (2002). The development of immunity in a social insect: evidence for the group facilitation of disease resistance. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 99: 6838-6842.

Verma, M., Sharma, S., & Prasad, R. (2009). Biological alternatives for termite control: A review. International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation, 63: 959-972.

Verma, M., Verma, S., & Sharma, S. (2018). Eco-friendly termite management in tropical conditions. In: Khan, M., & Ahmad, W. (eds) Termites and sustainable management: Volume 2 - Economic losses and management. Springer. p.137-164.

Verma, P., Yadav, A.N., Kumar, V., Khan, M.A., & Saxena, A.K. (2018). Microbes in termite management: potential role and strategies. In: Khan, M., & Ahmad, W. (eds) Termites and sustainable management: Volume 2 - Economic losses and management. Springer. p.197-217.

Wang, C., Henderson, G., Gautam, B.K., & Chen, X. (2014). Lethal and sublethal effects of lufenuron on the Formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Journal of Economic Entomology, 107: 1573-1581.

Wells, J.D., Fuxa, J.R., & Henderson, G. (1995). Virulence of Four Fungal Pathogens to Coptotermes formosanus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Journal of Entomological Science, 30: 208-215.

Wright, M.S., Osbrink, W.L., & Lax, A.R. (2002). Transfer of entomopathogenic fungi among Formosan subterranean termites and subsequent mortality. Journal of Applied Entomology, 126: 20-23.

Wright, M.S., & Lax, A.R. (2013). Combined effect of microbial and chemical control agents on subterranean termites. Journal of Microbiology, 51: 578-83.

Xu, D., Song, X.G., & Ruan, G.H. (2013). Current research progress in bio-control against termites. Chinese Journal of Hygienic Insecticides and Equipment, 3: 244-246.

Yii, J.E., Bong, C.F., King, J.H., & Kadir, J. (2016). Synergism of entomopathogenic fungus, Metarhizium anisopliae incorporated with fipronil against oil palm pest subterranean termite, Coptotermes curvignathus. Plant Protection Science, 52: 35-44.

Zhao, C., Lu, H., Cheng, R., Zhao, P., Zhang, G., Chen, H., Tang, Q., & Liu, L. (2025). T7-Synthesized Double-Stranded RNA Mimicking miR-71 Induces Termite RNAi and Increases Fungal Efficacy. Biomolecules, 15: 1517.

Zeck, W.M. (1992). Synergism between a new insecticide and entomogenous fungi in the control of subterranean termites. In: Proceedings of 25th Annual Meeting of the Society of Invertebrate Pathology, August 20–23, 1992, Heidelberg, Germany.

Zoberi, M.H. (1995). Metarhizium anisopliae, a fungal pathogen of Reticulitermes flavipes (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Mycologia 87: 354-359.